Emperor Taizu of Song (r. 960–976) unified China through military conquest during his reign, ending the upheaval of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. In Kaifeng, he established a strong central government over the empire. He ensured administrative stability by promoting the Imperial examination system of drafting state bureaucrats by skill and merit (instead of aristocratic or martial status) and promoted projects that ensured efficiency in communication throughout the empire. One such project was the creation by cartographers of detailed maps of each province and city which were then collected in a large atlas.[3] He also promoted groundbreaking science and technological innovations by supporting such works as the astronomicalclock tower designed and built by the engineer Zhang Sixun.
From its inception with the first emperor Taizu, the Song Dynasty was engaged in alternating states of warfare and diplomacy with the ethnic Khitans of the Liao Dynasty in the northeast and with the Tanguts of the Western Xia Dynasty in the northwest. The Song Dynasty used military force in an attempt to quell the Liao Dynasty and recapture the Sixteen Prefectures, a territory under Khitan control that was traditionally considered to be part of the Chinese domain.[5] However, Song forces were repulsed by the Liao forces who engaged in aggressive yearly campaigns into northern Song territory until 1004 when the signing of the Treaty of Shanyuan ended these northern frontier border clashes. The Chinese were forced to pay heavy tribute to the Khitans, although the paying of this tribute did little damage to the overall Song economy since the Khitans were heavily dependent upon importing massive amounts of goods from the Song Dynasty. More significantly, the Song state recognized the Liao state as its diplomatic equal. The Song Dynasty managed to win several military victories over the Tanguts in the early 11th century, culminating in a campaign led by the polymath scientist, general, and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095). However, this campaign was ultimately a failure due to a rival military officer of Shen disobeying direct orders, and the territory gained from the Western Xia was eventually lost.
During the 11th century, political rivalries thoroughly divided members of the court due to the ministers' differing approaches, opinions, and policies regarding the handling of the Song's complex society and thriving economy. The idealist ChancellorFan Zhongyan (989–1052) was the first to receive a heated political backlash when he attempted to make such reforms as improving the recruitment system of officials, increasing the salaries for minor officials, and establishing sponsorship programs to allow a wider range of people to be well educated and eligible for state service. After Fan was forced to step down from his office, Wang Anshi (1021–1086) became chancellor of the imperial court. With the backing of Emperor Shenzong of Song (1067–1085), Wang Anshi severely criticized the educational system and state bureaucracy. Seeking to resolve what he saw as state corruption and negligence, Wang implemented a series of reforms called the New Policies. These involved land tax reform, the establishment of several government monopolies, the support of local militias, and the creation of higher standards for the Imperial examination to make it more practical for men skilled in statecraft to pass. The reforms created political factions in the court with Wang Anshi's New Policies Group (Xin Fa), or the 'Reformers' in one camp, opposed by the ministers in the 'Conservative' faction led by Chancellor Sima Guang (1019–1086) in the other. As one faction supplanted another in the majority position of the court ministers, it would demote rival officials and exile them to govern remote frontier regions of the empire. One of the prominent victims of the political rivalry, the famous poet and statesman Su Shi (1037–1101), was jailed and eventually exiled for criticizing Wang's reforms.
译文:
北宋
宋太祖当政期间依靠军事力量统一中国，结束了五代十国纷争动荡的局面，并建立起强大的中央政府以控制整个帝国。为了维持王朝的长治久安，太祖皇帝推行科举取士制度、量才委任州府官吏，从而取代了之前的世袭制与军功制；并在帝国范围内大力营建通信设施以提高其效率，其中最著名的一个便是组织专门人员绘制各都道及府县的地图并将其汇编成册。他还鼓励科学创造和技术革新，天文学家张思训设计制造的太平浑仪就曾得到国家扶持。
从开国皇帝宋太祖开始，宋朝便卷入与东北的契丹辽国与西北的党项西夏的战争与外交之中。宋朝试图依靠军事力量打败辽国从而收复被契丹然占领的燕云十六州（这个区域自古以来就是中国领土不可分割的一部分）。然而，辽国连年对北宋发动侵略战争，直到1004年，宋最终在兵力上不及辽国，通过与辽国缔结了澶渊之盟而结束了宋北方边界的动乱。宋被迫向辽国进贡，虽然进贡对整个宋朝的经济影响微乎其微，但是契丹国却在很大程度上依赖于这些贡品。更重要的是，宋朝承认对辽国外交平等。11世纪初期，宋朝取得几次对党项族的军事上的胜利，由伟大的科学家、军事家、政治家沈括（1031-1095）所领导的一次战役将这次胜利引向高潮。但是这次战争由于朝廷中沈括的反对派不服从他的领导而归于失败，最终从西夏夺取的领土得而复失。
11世纪，由于对复杂的社会现象和兴盛经济体制的方法、观点以及方针的不同，宫廷里出现了朋党之争。理想主义者范仲淹任副宰相进行改革时 (989-1052)，引发了剧烈的政治风波，而他在其中更是首当其冲，改革计划包括改进仕官选拔制度、增加低级官员俸禄、建立教育资助体系扩大受教育人群的范围从而为国家效力等。范仲淹被迫从副宰相一职离任之后，王安石(1021-1086)接替其职。在皇帝宋神宗的支持下，王安石激烈的批判当时的教育体制和政府的官僚体制并推行新政，企图杜绝他所看到的政府里的腐败和玩忽职守现象。新政包括土地税制改革、建立少数政府垄断机构、支持各地民团、为科举考试订立更高的标准使之更适合于那些有管理国家才能的人通过考试。一系列改革使宫廷中产生了派系之争，一方是以王安石为代表的新政派或者称为改革派，另一方是以宰相司马光（1019-1086）为代表的守旧派。在宫廷的几个主要职位上，当一方压倒另外一方的时候，强大的一方就会将对方的官员降职，流放去帝国边远地方任职。派系之争中最典型的牺牲者就是著名诗人和政治家苏轼（1037-1101），由于反对王安石变法，遭到监禁以至流放。